How do lithium ion batteries work

First invented more than 30 years ago, lithium-ion or Li-ion batteries have become a ubiquitous part of our daily lives, from the tiny versions in cell phones to the tenfold stacks used to

power

Batteries are devices that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Rechargeable batteries, also known as accumulators, can accept and store electric energy and release it when needed. This means they can be discharged and charged up again in a reversible process. Single-use electric batteries supply electricity to an external circuit until they run out of charge.

Rechargeable batteries use combinations of materials that can easily and durably exchange electrons and positive ions. Internal combustion engine vehicles most often use lead-acid batteries, which contain a negative electrode made of lead, a positive electrode made of lead oxide, and an electrolyte consisting of sulfuric acid and water. Other materials used in batteries include nickel, cadmium, sodium and sulfur.

Scientists became particularly keen on lithium for batteries, since it is a very lightweight metal (the third element in the periodic table, after

hydrogen

The core component of a lithium-ion battery is a cell that looks a bit like puff pastry, with an aluminum plate to collect the current, followed by the cathode, electrolyte, anode, and finally a copper plate (see diagram).

When the battery is being charged up, Li+ lithium ions leave the positive electrode (cathode) and are stored in the negative electrode (anode). When it is discharged to produce an electric current, the Li+ ions move in the opposite direction.

Lithium-ion batteries have a high

energy density

However, they are at risk of suddenly catching fire and releasing toxic gases due to the electrolyte overheating to above 100°C, known as thermal runaway. This has led to thousands of cell phones and tablets being recalled by manufacturers in recent years. In 2013, a battery in a Boeing 787 aircraft caught fire after landing.

Investigations have shown that overheating is most often caused by a short circuit brought on by incorrect assembly or impact. As a result, manufacturers are now required to follow rigorous processes and fit the lithium-ion batteries they make with an electronic battery management system (BMS), which turns the power off if it detects an anomaly.

The decision to ban the sale of internal combustion engines after 2035 means that Europe must catch up in battery production. Several countries, in conjunction with vehicle manufacturers and startups, have launched projects to design new (lithium) battery models, with the challenge of

recycling

"Gigafactories" dedicated to the production of batteries with a capacity of several gigawatt-hours (GWh) are being developed, with the long-term aim of taking over part of the market currently held by Asia (China, South Korea and Japan). In addition to the creation of these sites, the products themselves are the subject of innovations to equip the vehicles of tomorrow with more efficient batteries... and at lower cost.

nBatteries store energy by shuffling ions, or charged particles, backward and forward between two plates of a conducting solid called electrodes. The exact chemical composition of these electrode materials determines the properties of the batteries, including how much energy they can store, how long they last, and how quickly they charge after use.

Importantly, each electrode needs to be made of a different material so there is an energy difference between the positive end and negative end of the battery, known as the voltage. But both materials also must contain the same type of ion in their chemical structure as they must store, and later transfer these charged particles from one electrode to the other when the battery is being used. However, there''s one more vital component: conducting fluid.

"The two electrodes absolutely don''t touch each other. If they did, you wouldn''t be able to extract any useful energy and the battery would just get hot," Jeff Dahn, an energy storage expert at Dalhousie University in Canada, told Live Science. "So you separate them and put an electrolyte, a type of conducting liquid, containing the same common ion in between."

As soon as wires are connected to the battery, completing the circuit, ions from the high-energy electrode (the negative terminal) move through the electrolyte solution toward the low-energy electrode (the positive terminal). At the same time, electrons also move from negative to positive through the wires. This controlled movement of charged particles allows drivers to draw power from the battery.

Electric cars typically use lithium-ion batteries, which shuttle lithium ions between the electrodes. "Lithium-ion batteries have pretty incredible properties. They''re very tuneable, so we can design them to fit a specific application through our choice of materials for the electrodes and the electrolyte," Dahn said. "Lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide batteries (NMCs) are used in electric cars and come in a whole number of flavours depending on the performance you want."

Specifically, the nickel, manganese and cobalt are used in the positive electrode, and the precise ratio of these metals determines the properties of the battery. Car manufacturers must juggle lots of competing factors — including driving range, battery lifetime, weight and cost — to create the most appropriate vehicle for their customers.

Almost all NMC batteries use the same electrolyte and negative electrode. But chemists can tweak the battery properties further by adding special additives to these components. Tweaking chemical ratios can affect properties such as charging times and safe operational temperatures.

As part of the goal of tackling climate change, more and more people are using electric vehicles, which produce just a fraction of the carbon dioxide emissions as their gasoline-powered counterparts.

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